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ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONCERNING SPACECRAFT, THEIR CAMERAS AND IMAGERS THAT ARE SHOWN ON THIS SITE
Cassini
Cassini-Huygens is
an unmanned spacecraft sent to
the planet Saturn. It is
a flagship-class NASA-ESA-ASI robotic
spacecraft.[3] Cassini is the fourth space probe to visit
Saturn and the first to enter orbit, and its mission is ongoing as of
2015. It has studied the planet and its many natural
satellites since arriving there in 2004.
Development started in the 1980s. Its design includes a Saturn orbiter,
and a lander for the moon Titan. The lander, called Huygens,
landed on Titan in 2005. The two-part spacecraft is named after
astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens.
The spacecraft launched on October 15, 1997 aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur and entered orbit around Saturn on July 1, 2004, after
an interplanetary voyage that included flybys of Earth, Venus, and
Jupiter. On December 25, 2004, Huygens separated from the
orbiter and reached Saturn's moonTitan on January 14, 2005. It
entered Titan's atmosphere and descended to the surface. It
successfully returned data to Earth, using the orbiter as a relay. This
was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer
Solar System.
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS)
The ISS is a remote sensing instrument that captures most images
in visible light, and also some infrared images
and ultraviolet images. The ISS has taken hundreds of
thousands of images of Saturn, its rings, and its moons. The ISS has a
wide-angle camera (WAC) that takes pictures of large areas, and a
narrow-angle camera (NAC) that takes pictures of small areas in fine
detail. Each of these cameras uses a sensitive charge-coupled device
(CCD) as its electromagnetic wave detector. Each CCD has a
1,024 square array of pixels, 12 μm on a side. Both cameras
allow for many data collection modes, including on-chip data
compression. Both cameras are fitted with spectral filters that rotate
on a whee to view different bands within the electromagnetic spectrum
ranging from 0.2 to 1.1 μm.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens#Summary
Galileo
Galileo was an unmanned spacecraft that studied the
planet Jupiter and its moons, as well as several other
Solar System bodies. Named after the astronomer Galileo Galilei,
it consisted of an orbiter and entry probe. It was launched on October
18, 1989, carried by Space Shuttle Atlantis, on
the STS-34 mission. Galileo arrived at Jupiter on
December 7, 1995, after gravitational assist flybys
of Venus and Earth, and became the first spacecraft to
orbit Jupiter. It launched the first probe into Jupiter, directly
measuring its atmosphere. Despite suffering major antenna
problems,Galileo achieved the first asteroid flyby,
of 951 Gaspra, and discovered the first asteroid moon,
Dactyl, around 243 Ida. In 1994, Galileo observedComet
Shoemaker-Levy
9's collision with Jupiter. The spacecraft was an
international effort by the United States of America and the
Federal Republic of Germany.
SSI
The SSI was an 800-by-800-pixel solid state camera consisting of an
array of silicon sensors called a "charge coupled device" (CCD).
Galileo was one of the first spacecraft to be equipped with a CCD
camera.[citation needed] The optical portion of the camera was
built as a Cassegrain telescope. Light was collected by the
primary mirror and directed to a smaller secondary mirror that
channeled it through a hole in the center of the primary mirror and
onto the CCD. The CCD sensor was shielded from radiation, a
particular problem within the harsh Jovian magnetosphere. The shielding
was accomplished by means of a 10 mm thick layer
of tantalum surrounding the CCD except where the light enters
the system. An eight-position filter wheel was used to obtain images at
specific wavelengths. The images were then combined electronically on
Earth to produce color images. The spectral response of the SSI ranged
from about 0.4 to 1.1 micrometres. The SSI weighed 29.7 kilograms and
consumed, on average, 15 watts of power.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_(spacecraft)
Hubble WF/PC I
The Wide Field/Planetary Camera (WFPC) (pronounced as
wiffpick) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space
Telescope until December 1993. It was one of the instruments on
Hubble at launch, but its functionality was severely impaired by the
defects of the main mirror optics which afflicted the telescope.
However, it produced uniquely valuable high resolution images of
relatively bright astronomical objects, allowing for a number of
discoveries to be made by HST even in its aberrated condition.
WFPC was proposed by James A. Westphal, a professor of planetary
science at Caltech, and was designed, constructed, and managed
by JPL. At the time it was proposed, 1976, CCDs had
barely been used for astronomical imaging, though the first KH-11
KENNAN reconnaissance satellite equipped with CCDs for imaging was
launched in December 1976. The high sensitivity offered such
promise that many astronomers strongly argued that CCDs should be
considered for Hubble Space Telescope instrumentation.
This first WFPC consisted of two separate cameras, each comprising 4
800x800 pixel Texas Instruments CCDs arranged to cover a
contiguous field of view. The Wide Field camera had a 0.1 arc second
pixel scale and was intended for the panoramic observations of faint
sources at the cost of angular resolution. The Planetary Camera
had a 0.043 arc second pixel scale and was intended for high-resolution
observations. Selection between the two cameras was done with a
four-facetted pyramid that rotated by 45 degrees.
As part of the corrective service mission (STS-61 in December
1993) the WFPC was swapped out for a replacement version. The Wide
Field and Planetary Camera 2 improved on its predecessor and
incorporated corrective optics needed to overcome the main mirror
defect. To avoid potential confusion, the WFPC is now most commonly
referred to as WFPC1.
On its return to Earth, the WFPC was disassembled and parts of it were
used in Wide Field Camera 3,[3] which was installed in Hubble
on May 14, 2009 as part of Servicing Mission 4,
replacing WFPC2.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Field_and_Planetary_Camera
The Wide Field/Planetary Camera 1 (WFPC1, also known as WF/PC) was the
original main camera installed onboard at launch in 1990. The camera
itself worked flawlessly, though
Hubble���������€š�š�š�š���������€š�š�š�ž�s
mirror problem reduced the
sharpness of its images.
https://www.spacetelescope.org/about/general/instruments/wfpc1/
Hubble WF/PC II
The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) was
Hubble workhorse
camera for many years. It recorded images through a selection of 48
color filters covering a spectral range from far-ultraviolet to visible
and near-infrared wavelengths. The heart
of WFPC2 consisted of an
L-shaped trio of wide-field sensors and a smaller, high resolution
(Planetary) Camera placed at the
square's
remaining corner.
https://www.spacetelescope.org/about/general/instruments/wfpc2/
The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is
a camera formerly installed on the Hubble Space
Telescope. The camera was built by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory and is roughly the size of a baby grand piano. It
was installed by servicing mission 1 (STS-61) in 1993, replacing the
telescope's original Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC).
WFPC2 was used to image the Hubble Deep Field in 1995,
the Hourglass Nebula and Egg Nebula in 1996, and
the Hubble Deep Field South in 1998. During STS-125,
WFPC2 was removed and replaced with the Wide Field Camera
3 as part of the mission's first spacewalk on May 14, 2009. After
returning to Earth, the camera was displayed briefly at
the National Air and Space Museum and the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory before returning to its final home at the
Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum.
WFPC2 was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which
also built the predecessor WF/PC camera launched with Hubble
in 1990. WFPC2 contains internal corrective optics to fix the spherical
aberration in the Hubble telescope's primary mirror.
The charge-coupled devices (CCDs) in the WFPC2 (designed at
JPL and manufactured by Loral) detected electromagnetic
radiation in a range from 120 nmto 1000 nm. This
included the 380 nm to 780 nm of the visible spectrum,
all of the near ultraviolet (and a small part of the extreme
ultraviolet band) and most of the near infrared band. The
sensitivity distribution of these CCDs is roughly normal, with a
peak around 700 nm and concomitantly very poor sensitivity at the
extremes of the CCDs' operating range. WFPC2 featured four identical
CCD detectors, each 800x800 pixels. Three of these, arranged in an
L-formation, comprise Hubble's Wide Field Camera (WFC). Adjacent to
them is the Planetary Camera (PC), a fourth CCD with different
(narrower-focused) optics. This afforded a more detailed view over a
smaller region of the visual field. WFC and PC images are typically
combined, producing the WFPC2's characteristic stair-step image. When
distributed as non-scientific JPEG files the PC portion of
the image is shown with the same resolution as the WFC portions, but
astronomers receive a raw scientific image package which presents the
PC image in its native, higher detail.
To allow scientists to view specific parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum the WFPC2 featured a rotating wheel which moves different
optical filters into the lightpath (between the WFPC2's aperture and
the CCD detectors). The 48 filter elements included:
A set of standard wide band photometric filters.
A graduated filter, featuring a wide range of very narrowband filters.
By positioning the target object at a precise part of the field, the
operator can use an accurately picked narrowband filter.
A number of narrowband optical filters tuned to the wavelengths various atomic emission lines.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Field_and_Planetary_Camera_2
Mariner 4
Mariner 4 (together with Mariner 3 known
as Mariner Mars 1964) was the fourth in a series of
spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode. It
was designed to conduct closeup scientific observations of Mars and to
transmit these observations to Earth. Launched on November 28,
1964, Mariner 4 performed the first successful flyby of
the planet Mars, returning the first pictures of the Martian
surface. It captured the first images of another planet ever returned
from deep space; their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead
world largely changed the view of the scientific community on life
on Mars. Other mission objectives were to perform field and
particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity
of Mars and to provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering
capabilities for interplanetary flights of long duration. On December
21, 1967 communications with Mariner 4 were terminated.
A television camera, mounted on a scan platform at the bottom
center of the spacecraft, to obtain closeup pictures of the surface of
Mars. This subsystem consisted of 4 parts, a Cassegrain
telescope with a 1.05� by 1.05� field of view, a shutter and
red/green filter assembly with 0.08s and 0.20s exposure times, a slow
scan vidicon tube which translated the optical image into an
electrical video signal, and the electronic systems required to convert
the analogue signal into a digital bitstream for transmission.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_4
Mariner 6 & 7
As part of NASA's wider Mariner program, Mariner
6 and Mariner 7 (Mariner Mars 69A and Mariner
Mars 69B) completed the first dual mission toMars in 1969. Mariner
6 was launched from Launch Complex 36B at Cape Kennedy and Mariner
7 from Launch Complex 36A at Cape Kennedy. The craft flew over
the and south polar regions, analyzing the atmosphere and
the surface with remote sensors, and recording and relaying hundreds of
pictures. The mission's goals were to study the surface and atmosphere
of Mars during close flybys, in order to establish the basis for future
investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for
extraterrestrial life, and to demonstrate and develop technologies
required for future Mars missions. Mariner 6 also had the objective of
providing experience and data which would be useful in programming the
Mariner 7 encounter 5 days later.
Mars TV Camera
An analog , with a capacity of 195 million bits, could store television images for subsequent transmission.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_6_and_7
Each spacecraft carried a wide- and narrow-angle television
camera, an infrared spectroscope, an infrared radiometer, and an
ultraviolet spectroscope.
http://www.astronautix.com/craft/marner67.htm
According to the Mars '69 Press kit (Link) both cameras were
photo-television units, one camera ('A') was essentially the same as
the Mariner 4 camera aside from being fitted with a wide-angle lens.
The second camera ('B') was the narrow angle unit, but it's not clear
if it was otherwise identical to the 'A' camera.
They were slow-scan vidicon. Mariner 9 and 10, Viking 1 and 2, and the Voyagers also used it
http://www.unmannedspaceflight.com/lofiversion/index.php/t5238.html
The spacecraft each acquired a series of far encounter images, composed
of 704 lines consisting of 945 pixels each, as they approached the
planet and a series of near encounter images (same numbers of lines and
pixels/line) upon arrival. The far encounter photos had resolutions
ranging from 4 to 43 km per pixel, while the near encounter images had
resolutions as good as 300 m per pixel. In total, 143 far encounter
images and 58 near encounter images were transmitted.
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/mars/mariner.html
Mariner 11 & 12 (Voyager 1 & 2)
Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on
September 5, 1977. Part of the Voyager program to study the
outer Solar System, Voyager 1launched 16 days after its
twin, Voyager 2. Having operated for 38 years and
20 days, the spacecraft still communicates with the Deep
Space Network to receive routine commands and return data. At a
distance of 132 AU (1.97�1010 km) as of summer 2015, it is
the farthest spacecraft from Earth and the only one
in interstellar space.
The probe's primary mission objectives included flybys
of Jupiter, Saturn, and Saturn's large moon, Titan.
While the spacecraft's course could have been altered to include
a Pluto encounter by forgoing the Titan flyby, exploration of
the moon, which was known to have a substantial atmosphere, took
priority. It studied the weather, magnetic fields, and rings of
the two planets and was the first probe to provide detailed images of
their moons.
After completing its primary mission with the flyby of Saturn on
November 20, 1980, Voyager 1 began an extended mission
to explore the regions and boundaries of the outer heliosphere. On
August 25, 2012, Voyager 1 crossed
the heliopause to become the first spacecraft to enter
interstellar space and study the interstellar
medium.[6] Voyager 1's extended mission is expected to continue
until around 2025, when its radioisotope thermoelectric
generators will no longer supply enough electric power to operate
any of its scientific instruments.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_1#History
The photographic experiment used a two-camera system, based on the
Mariner 10 system. This system included one narrow-angle,
long-focal-length camera and one wide-angle, short-focal-length camera.
The maximum resolution achievable depended on the actual trajectory on
this multi-encounter mission, but the resolution was as high as 0.5 to
1.0 km on the closest approaches to some objects. At Jupiter and
Saturn, the resolution was better than 20 km and 5 km, respectively.
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experimentDisplay.do?id=1977-084A-01
The Mariner Jupiter-Saturn probe was the previous name of
two NASA deep-space probes, that had previous to being
named Mariner Jupiter-Saturn probes been known
as Mariner 11 andMariner 12 and that later became known
as:
Voyager 1 (Voyager 1's original project name was Mariner 11)
Voyager 2 (Voyager 2's original project name was Mariner 12)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_Jupiter-Saturn_probe
Ranger 9
Ranger 9 was a Lunar probe, launched in 1965
by NASA. It was designed to achieve a lunar
impact trajectory and to transmit high-resolution photographs
of the lunar surface during the final minutes of flight up to impact.
The spacecraft carried six television vidicon cameras - two
wide-angle (channel F, cameras A and B) and four narrow-angle (channel
P) - to accomplish these objectives. The cameras were arranged in two
separate chains, or channels, each self-contained with separate power
supplies, timers, and transmitters so as to afford the greatest
reliability and probability of obtaining
high-quality television pictures. No other experiments were
carried on the spacecraft.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger_9
The television camera systems for all the Ranger spacecraft were
designed and built by RCA, and RCA built the ground - based receiving
equipment for the Ranger television signals and the television
recording and display equipment.
http://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Radio-Age/ElectronicAge-1965-Spring.pdf
Surveyor 1
Surveyor 1 was the first lunar soft-lander in the
unmanned Surveyor program of the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA,United States).
This lunar soft-lander gathered data about the lunar surface
that would be needed for the manned Apollo Moon landings that
began in 1969. The successful soft landing of Surveyor 1 on
the Ocean of Storms was the first one by an
American space probe onto anyextraterrestrial body, and it
occurred just four months after the first Moon landing by the Soviet
Union's Luna 9 probe. This was also a success on NASA's first
attempt at a soft landing on any astronomical object.
Surveyor 1 was launched May 30, 1966, from the Cape Canaveral
Air Force Station at Cape Canaveral, Florida, and it landed
on the Moon on June 2, 1966. Surveyor 1 transmitted 11,237
still photos of the lunar surface to the Earth by using a
television camera and a sophisticated radio-telemetry system.
The Surveyor program was managed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, in Los Angeles County, but the entire Surveyor space
probe was designed and built by the Hughes Aircraft
Company in El Segundo, California.
The TV camera consisted of a vidicon tube, 25 millimeter and
100 millimeter focal-length lenses, a shutter, several optical filters,
and iris-system mounted along an axis inclined approximately 16
degrees from the central axis ofSurveyor 1. The camera was mounted
under a mirror that could be moved in azimuth and elevation. This
arrangement created a virtual stereo image pair so that adjacent
overlapping images were stereo image pairs and could be viewed as
three-dimensional images. This stereo capability permitted some
photogrammetric measurements of various lunar features. The TV camera's
operation was dependent on the receipt of the proper radio commands
from the Earth. Frame-by-frame coverage of the lunar surface was
obtained over 360 degrees in azimuth and from +40 degrees above the
plane normal to the camera's axis to -65 degrees below this plane. Both
600-line and 200-line modes of operation were used. The 200-line mode
transmitted over an omnidirectional antenna for the first 14 photos and
scanned one frame every 61.8 seconds. The remaining transmissions were
of 600-line pictures over a directional antenna, and each frame was
scanned every 3.6 seconds. Each 200-line picture required 20 seconds
for a complete video transmission and it used a radio
bandwidth of about 1.2 kilohertz.
Each 600-line picture required about one second to be read from the
vidicon tube, and they required a radio bandwidth of about
220 kilohertz. The data transmissions were converted into a standard TV
signal for both closed-circuit TV and broadcast
TV. The television images were displayed on Earth on a slow-scan
monitor coated with a long persistency phosphor. The persistency was
selected to optimally match the nominal maximum frame rate. One frame
of TV identification was received for each incoming TV frame, and it
was displayed in real time at a rate compatible with the incoming
image. These data were recorded on a video magnetic tape recorder. Over
10,000 pictures were taken by Surveyor 1's TV camera before
the lunar sunset of June 14, 1966. Included in these pictures were
wide-angle and narrow-angle panoramas, focus ranging surveys,
photometric surveys, special area surveys, and celestial
photography. Surveyor 1 responded to commands to activate the
camera on July 7, and by July 14, 1966, it had returned nearly 1000
more pictures.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor_1#Science_instruments
MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR - 1996. In November 1996, NASA and the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory began America's return to Mars after a 20-year
absence by launching the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft.
The Mars Global Surveyor went into orbit around Mars in September of
1997. Most of the data volume from MGS is generated by a
dual-mode camera called the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC). In
narrow-angle mode, MOC's black and white, high-resolution telephoto
lens can image Martian rocks and other objects as small as 1.4 meters
(4.6 feet) across. The largest raw image possible is 2048 x 4800
pixels in size. In contrast to the detailed surface images, MOC's
wide- angle, global monitoring mode uses a fish-eye lens to generate
panoramic images in color spanning horizon to horizon (NASA).
Click on image to see full-page view.
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/marsurv.html
Viking 1
NASA's Viking Mission to Mars was composed of two spacecraft,
Viking 1 and Viking 2, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander. The
primary mission objectives were to obtain high resolution images of the
Martian surface, characterize the structure and composition of the
atmosphere and surface, and search for evidence of life.
Viking 1 was launched on August 20, 1975 and arrived at Mars on
June 19, 1976. The first month of orbit was devoted to imaging the
surface to find appropriate landing sites for the Viking Landers. On
July 20, 1976 the Viking 1 Lander separated from the Orbiter and
touched down at Chryse Planitia.
The Viking Visual Imaging Subsystem (VIS) on the orbiter consisted
of twin high-resolution, slow-scan television framing cameras mounted
on the scan platform of each orbiter with the optical axes offset by
1.38 deg. Each of the two identical cameras on each orbiter had
mechanical shutters; a 475-mm focal length telescope; a 37-mm diameter
vidicon (video camera tube), the central section of which was scanned
in a raster (i.e. image) format of 1056 lines by 1182 samples.
A filter wheel between the lens and shutter held six color filter
positions: blue (0.35 to 0.53
micrometers), minus-blue (0.48 -
0.70), violet (0.35 - 0.47), green (0.50 -
0.60), red (0.55 - 0.70), and clear (no filter).
The footprint of each image covers roughly 40 x 44 km, acquired from an
altitude of 1500 km. The configuration of the cameras provided
overlapping, wide-swath coverage of the surface. Each pixel was
digitized as a 7-bit number (0 to 127) stored in the onboard
tape-recorder, and later transmitted to Earth and converted to an 8-bit
number by multiplying by 2.
https://isis.astrogeology.usgs.gov/IsisWorkshop/index.php/Viking_Orbiter_Mission
The instruments of the orbiter consisted of
two vidicon cameras for imaging (VIS), an infrared
spectrometer for water vapor mapping (MAWD) and infrared radiometers
for thermal mapping (IRTM).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking_1
Telescope focuses images on a Vidicon. Image is an imprint of
variable electrostatic charge on the faceplate of the Vidicon.
Faceplate is then scanned and neutralized with an electron beam and
variations in charge are read in parallel into a seven-track tape
recorder. They flew on numerous missions (Mariners, Voyagers, etc)
They
were
heavy
(Voyager camera
system ~40 kg)
Yohkoh solar X-ray telescope
On August 31, 1991, a satellite was launched into space from the
Kagoshima Space Center (KSC) in Southern Japan. This satellite, known
as Yohkoh("Sunbeam"), was a project of the Japanese Institute of
Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS). The scientific objective was to
observe the energetic phenomena taking place on the Sun, specifically
solar flares in x-ray and gamma-ray emissions.
http://hesperia.gsfc.nasa.gov/sftheory/yohkoh.htm
The satellite was three-axis stabilized and in a near-circular orbit.
It carried four instruments: a Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT), a Hard X-ray
Telescope (HXT), a Bragg Crystal Spectrometer (BCS), and a Wide Band
Spectrometer (WBS). About 50 MB were generated each day and
this was stored on board by a 10.5 MB bubble memory recorder.
Because the SXT utilized a charge-coupled device (CCD) as its
readout device, perhaps being the first X-ray astronomical telescope to
do so, its "data cube" of images was both extensive and convenient, and
it revealed much interesting detail about the behavior of the solar
corona. Previous solar soft X-ray observations, such as those
of Skylab, had been restricted to film as a readout device. Yohkoh
therefore returned many novel scientific results, especially regarding
solar flares and other forms of magnetic activity.
Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) was an X-ray telescope with glancing
incidence X-ray mirror and a CCD sensor. There was also a co-aligned
optical telescope using the same CCD, but after the failure of the
entrance filter in November 1992 it became unusable.
The CCD is 1024 x 1024 pixels with pixel angular
size of
2.45, point spread function core width (FWHM) was about 1.5 pixels,
field of view was
42,
which was a little larger than the
whole solar disk. Typical time resolution was 2 s in flare mode
and 8 s in quiet (no flare) mode, the maximum time resolution in
0.5 s.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohkoh
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